AutoSys Workload Automation vs Nintex Process Platform comparison

Broadcom and Nintex are both solutions in the Workload Automation category. Broadcom is ranked #4 with an average rating of 7.6, while Nintex is ranked #22 with an average rating of 7.3. Broadcom holds a 6.6% mindshare in WA, compared to Nintex’s 1.8% mindshare. Additionally, 94% of Broadcom users are willing to recommend the solution, compared to 88% of Nintex users who would recommend it.

Comparison Buyer's Guide

Download the report

Executive Summary

We performed a comparison between AutoSys Workload Automation and Nintex Process Platform based on real PeerSpot user reviews.

Find out in this report how the two Workload Automation solutions compare in terms of features, pricing, service and support, easy of deployment, and ROI.

To learn more, read our detailed AutoSys Workload Automation vs. Nintex Process Platform Report (Updated: August 2026).

Buyer's Guide

AutoSys Workload Automation vs. Nintex Process Platform

August 2026

Download the complete report

Helped 908,834 peers since 2012

Review summaries and opinions

We asked business professionals to review the solutions they use. Here are some excerpts of what they said:

Categories and Ranking

JAMS

Mindshare comparison

As of August 2026, in the Workload Automation category, the mindshare of JAMS is 3.1%, up from 1.9% compared to the previous year. The mindshare of AutoSys Workload Automation is 6.6%, down from 10.4% compared to the previous year. The mindshare of Nintex Process Platform is 1.8%, up from 0.3% compared to the previous year. It is calculated based on PeerSpot user engagement data.

Workload Automation Mindshare Distribution
Product	Mindshare (%)
JAMS	3.1%
AutoSys Workload Automation	6.6%
Nintex Process Platform	1.8%
Other	88.5%

Workload Automation

Featured Reviews

Latha Viswanathan

Principal Data Base And Infrastructure Engineer at a outsourcing company with 501-1,000 employees

Automation has replaced nightly monitoring and delivers reliable, unified job scheduling

We have really enjoyed working with JAMS in terms of notifications, alerts, and streamlining. There used to be a process with Automate, which is another product from Fortra, but even before that, the other division of the company that we were merging with had a tool that was built in-house called a file handler or file distributor. It was an in-house developed tool, but it was not as streamlined or as efficient as JAMS is. We literally had to have a dedicated nighttime person monitoring. Although we are 24/7, the divisions of the company that we were using JAMS for have been small scale. While we have automated it, we have streamlined it in such a way that notifications go out and alerts go out, but if there is anything, then we get paged and alerted, and if anything needs to happen at midnight, we can wake up. On the other hand, with the tool I mentioned, the file handler and distributor, we used to have a dedicated nighttime person that had to be sitting and monitoring it to see when a file arrived, whether it met the conditions, and then execute the next particular job. By using JAMS, we have gained a lot more efficiencies in terms of all of those to streamline it, and there is no necessary need for having an overnight engineer just keeping an eye on all of this.

Read full review

Pavan Katta

Assistant VP at a financial services firm with 10,001+ employees

Experience significant automation with robust integration and user-friendly interfaces

There are areas of AutoSys Workload Automation that have room for improvement. They are implementing good enhancements in the R24 release. The web UI needs some improvement. Cloud integrations are limited to 25 or 30 configurable plugins and integrations to the cloud. They can improve in that area. They have separate tools, not AutoSys Workload Automation, such as Atomic and other SaaS-based solutions that can run inside the cloud. AutoSys Workload Automation can be configured in the cloud, but it requires a substantial number of VMs depending on the load. For on-premises deployment, it is a very good solution. They need to increase their footprint in the cloud and improve the web UI. They are making excellent progress in the R24 release.

Read full review

Hafiz Muhammad Usama

Manager Mobility & Digitalization at Fatima group

Have experienced challenges integrating with other systems but have benefited from improved process automation

There are multiple areas that need improvement. Nintex Process Platform needs integration with other platforms such as Salesforce and other CRM platforms. There should be actions available so we can directly integrate with these systems. Additionally, there is a gap in mathematical actions and logical actions. We need to parse data, and if we receive data in JSON, there is no action available in Nintex Process Platform to parse the data and extract data from that JSON string. Such actions and logical actions must be available in Nintex Process Platform to increase its capability. For us, Nintex Process Platform is configurable with SQL Server, but there is no configuration option available with Oracle. We also use Oracle in multiple processes, but we have found no way to directly configure Nintex Process Platform with Oracle. We have to use SQL Server in between. We have to create a link server within SQL Server as a bypass to retrieve or post data into Oracle. There were multiple improvement points available.

Read full review

Quotes from Members

We asked business professionals to review the solutions they use. Here are some excerpts of what they said:

Pros

"The dashboard is intuitive."

"Getting JAMS in place was a game changer for us back then."

"The fact that we no longer need to use Excel spreadsheets is huge."

"The overall product is fantastic. I love it. It has been a fantastic, solid product. If I have one tiny bit of a problem with it, the support team gets in touch with me right away. I don't know if I've had another service that has been as fantastic as the JAMS support team."

"The interface is good, and it's very easy to define and create jobs. If a job is not running or there is an error, the solution will send an email. That's all very good and very useful."

"JAMS gives operations teams a single place to manage, monitor, and track job execution, which from my perspective as a developer improves coordination between teams because everyone has visibility into the status of critical workloads and simplifies troubleshooting since job history, execution status, and other relevant information are all easily accessible, ensuring that business-critical processes are executed consistently and reliably across the organization."

"It's worth its weight in gold and we cannot get rid of it now."

"JAMS offers diverse scheduling capabilities for any kind of job, including Linux, PowerShell scripts, and SQL, enabling automation of jobs, which has proven beautiful after three years of usage."

More JAMS pros

"AutoSys significantly reduces manual effort."

"The tool can probably handle way bigger stuff than what we are doing."

"The features that I have found most valuable with AutoSys are that it is scalable, easy to use, fast, and always available. That's very important because if it's not steady then it's a real problem. So, at this point, we are satisfied with it."

"We are able to process hundreds of thousands of jobs a month, it is pretty good, and with failover we maintain continuous uptime."

"The initial setup is easy."

"The stability of AutoSys Workload Automation is good."

"We use technical support all the time, we would be lost without them, they're fantastic, really good job, and we're able to reach the right person to help us out right away."

"Its stability and reliability, that it's been there for 20 years and 30 years, and it's always been the number one scheduler."

More AutoSys Workload Automation pros

"We contacted the technical support team a couple of times last year."

"It has integration with BI and Analytics tools, and RPA toolsets as well."

"With an extensive list of integrations with LOB data, your workflows can extend far beyond SharePoint, driving adoption of SharePoint."

"The biggest selling point for us was that the solution had out of box connectivity with UiPath and we didn't have to write any custom code to be able to invoke UiPath bots and automation solutions."

"The workflow engine of K2 is its main strength. Its workflow engine is probably one of the best, and that's the reason why Nintex bought K2. It can clearly handle any complex process or scenario. K2 is almost low-code. It is a no-code or low-code solution. You don't have to read a whole lot of code. It is pretty much GUI based. Their support is also excellent. The biggest advantage of K2 is SmartObjects, which allow you to separate the data from the application. It is a standalone application that allows you to build a data source from different places, which a lot of other applications also do. It is called SmartObjects technology, which is pretty powerful. If I have data from different applications, such as JD and ServiceNow, I can just create a SmartObject based on a data source and use it. I have some forms that have six, seven, or eight applications in a single form with data from different places."

"K2 is reasonably priced."

"The strength of this solution lies in its connectors and the accessibility of an open API. The presence of an open API allows users to create custom connectors if necessary, provided there is access to the source API documentation. Additionally, the platform features a straightforward yet highly effective forms tool. This tool not only seamlessly integrates with the workflow functionality but also facilitates the transmission of information to the document generation tool. This comprehensive integration is particularly noteworthy when compared to alternatives such as Oracle, which tends to rely on more complex and separate logic for similar functionalities. A key strength of Nintex lies in its user-centric approach to help documentation. The materials are designed to be easily understood, avoiding complex terminology. In cases where technical terms are used, they are linked to articles for further clarification. This contrasts with platforms like Microsoft and Oracle, which may employ technical jargon without clear explanations. Nintex further supports its users through a robust online community, fostering collaboration and shared insights. Additionally, Nintex University offers online training across all applications, following a role-based structure. Unlike some other platforms, Nintex's training is thoughtfully broken down into shorter courses, focused on specific roles. This approach ensures that users can efficiently access the information they need without navigating through extensive and potentially irrelevant content, as may be the case with Oracle's training structure."

"The product's primary advantage is its low-code nature which allows for rapid development without extensive coding."

More Nintex Process Platform pros

Cons

"To improve JAMS, it should resolve the issues with the JD Edwards application and the need for the SSH agent in the current version, which has been a problem for a while."

"In terms of improvements, I believe JAMS can enhance its user interface for better user experiences."

"The biggest area with room for improvement is the area that my organization benefits the most from using JAMS, and that is in custom execution methods. I happen to have a very good C# developer. Ever since we got JAMS, he has spent a lot of time talking to JAMS developers, researching the JAMS libraries, and creating custom execution methods. He's gotten very good at it. He is now able to create them and maintain them very easily, but that knowledge was hard-won knowledge. It was difficult to come by, and if I should ever lose this developer, then I would be hard-pressed to find anyone who could create JAMS custom execution methods quite as well as he can since there really isn't all that much help, such as documentation or information, available on how to create custom execution methods."

"The cost has definitely gone up tremendously. That is where I do know, as much as the feature sets are there, and if the newly acquired company is going to be doing a pushback, they might just say, 'Do we still need to pay this much? Or at that point, should we look into an alternative?'"

"The error messages from JAMS often need clarification, hindering our ability to resolve issues swiftly."

"One thing that I know that the JAMS people said that they were working on that would be huge for us is a search capability so that you could search for tasks. It may be available in version 7 or in a future release of 7. I think that's on their roadmap. But right now, for us to do a search, we have to search through database queries."

"When looking at a folder in JAMS with many jobs, it would be good to have better information in the list display of what's inside those jobs. We get some information, but other important details are missing."

"JAMS has built-in reporting. I've never really used it. I tried using it a few years ago and I couldn't figure it out. It was wonky. It could be improved upon."

More JAMS cons

"AutoSys Workload Automation could improve in the Linux environment. The previous versions of the AutoSys Workload Automation let you take the profile of the user that you were using to run the tasks that you're going to automate, but in the latest versions, you can't do that, you need to make more definitions and it's a little bit difficult. It was easier in the previous versions."

"The GUI/Workstation is weak and needs to be improved. CA is working on this right now."

"We see improvement possibilities in the processing provision of predefined evaluations or individual objects, or in the Self Service portal, which can be used by any user to monitor objects or start objects."

"The visibility and control features are somewhat limited."

"CA Workload Automation AE (AutoSys Edition) should have a few features like the CA7 FQJOB command (to get all the downstream/upstream jobs with the batch current position)."

"The job flow could use a little more improvement."

"We've had stability problems with the tool."

"We had a few issues, however, the issues were more on the infrastructure rather than with the application itself."

More AutoSys Workload Automation cons

"K2 is a workflow solution, and there is no RPA solution with K2. This is where K2 lacks a little bit."

"There have been some glitches, and the workflow fails frequently."

"There is room for improvement in the user experience in the forms."

"While Nintex Workflow has pretty robust troubleshooting abilities, I think that improving the default logging and notifications would be helpful."

"The management server and the admin page where you can manage processes need improvement."

"We would like to design parallel workflows and long-running workflows, along with new features for connecting to cloud-based systems."

"Nintex seems to be very server intensive. It is one of the reasons that we are moving to a different product on the SharePoint 2016 platform."

"Nintex is still at the starting point of integrating with AI. It has integrated with a very small piece of artificial intelligence., like only integrated with the Google Cloud. There is a benefit, like a no-code and low-code solution. But, again, if you are a developer, especially if you are a hardcore developer, you are using your code knowledge, its skills, and all. And, suddenly, you are moving into the low-code solution, and then you will feel, like, so many things you can't achieve with the low-code solution."

More Nintex Process Platform cons

Pricing and Cost Advice

"JAMS is priced competitively compared to similar solutions and offers flexible licensing options to cater to user needs."

"There are no additional costs other than the license for Fortra's JAMS which is affordable."

"It's certainly a lot cheaper than Tivoli and Control-M. In comparison to them, you get a lot more bang for your buck. You get pretty much the whole functionality and more, in some cases, when compared to Control-M, but at a fraction of the price."

"In the end, you'll find that it's really worth the price. There is some sticker shock, but it's worth every dime."

"Fortra's JAMS pricing structure has deteriorated significantly since its acquisition by Fortra."

"The pricing is reasonable."

"Take advantage of its scalability. You can start small. The initial cost is very reasonable. Once you have started picking up the tool and adopting it, then you can scale up from there and buy more agents."

"For what it does, the product is priced very well."

More JAMS pricing and cost advice

"We paid to use the solution monthly."

"CA pricing has been a problem, and not looked upon favorably here at all."

"The return on investment would be very high because doing things manually without this product would be extremely expensive."

"People need to pay attention to how they use their ESP agents on the distributed platform. That's where some of the cost comes in, based on how many you need or how many you use."

"I certainly think the pricing is worth the value."

"The price of this solution is reasonable and there is an annual license required."

"Validate how many agents you need beforehand."

"There is an annual license to use AutoSys Workload Automation."

More AutoSys Workload Automation pricing and cost advice

"The product’s price is competitive compared to other vendors."

"The price of this solution is affordable but the problem in Algeria is our community is a bit slower. The new clients might feel the solution is a bit expensive."

"Nintex products are expensive, but valuable. Licensing in on-premise was historically based on a perpetual model, where you’d license per Web front-end. However, they are switching exclusively to a consumption (subscription) model, where you purchase the number of workflows you think you’ll use in your environment, and can scale up from there."

"The initial investment in K2 is heavy. Currently, the expenditure is $28,000 for a year. After we go to the cloud, it is going to be per seat and probably cheaper. Currently, there are unlimited users."

"We pay on a yearly basis. It's my understanding that we pay approximately $11,000/year."

"Certainly. Notably, in terms of cost, this solution presents a substantial advantage, being approximately forty percent more economical compared to Oracle. It offers flexibility with two deployment options, catering to both cloud and on-premises preferences. Moreover, within each deployment option, there are two variations available. For organizations with limited IT resources and relying on citizen developers—individuals from the business side comfortable with technology—the platform allows for a more hands-on approach. These users can independently implement solutions without extensive coding or custom development. In contrast, the KQ solution at Symantec is adept at addressing the needs of sectors like banking, where extensive custom development is required for seamless integration with existing applications, websites, and ensuring robust security measures."

"Nintex Workflow is more expensive than Microsoft's native products, but it is still considered moderately priced when compared to higher-end products such as K2."

"Comparatively, it's expensive."

More Nintex Process Platform pricing and cost advice

See which vendors are best for you

Use our free recommendation engine to learn which Workload Automation solutions are best for your needs.

See recommendations

908,834 professionals have used our research since 2012.

Top Industries

By visitors reading reviews

Financial Services Firm

16%

Construction Company

12%

Manufacturing Company

Comms Service Provider

Financial Services Firm

35%

Manufacturing Company

Outsourcing Company

Retailer

Financial Services Firm

16%

Construction Company

10%

Manufacturing Company

10%

Outsourcing Company

Company Size

By reviewers

Large Enterprise

Midsize Enterprise

Small Business

By reviewers
Company Size	Count
Small Business	15
Midsize Enterprise	14
Large Enterprise	23

By reviewers
Company Size	Count
Small Business	13
Midsize Enterprise	5
Large Enterprise	79

By reviewers
Company Size	Count
Small Business	17
Midsize Enterprise	6
Large Enterprise	26

Questions from the Community

What is your experience regarding pricing and costs for JAMS?

I was not really involved in the pricing, setup cost, and licensing at that level. I am more involved in the technica...

See all answers

What needs improvement with JAMS?

To improve JAMS, it should resolve the issues with the JD Edwards application and the need for the SSH client connect...

See all answers

What is your primary use case for JAMS?

My main use case for JAMS is to install, set up, and configure for customers working with JD Edwards application. A s...

See all answers

How does Control-M compare with AutoSys Workload Automation?

Control-M acts as a single, centralized interface for monitoring and managing all batch processes, which is helpful b...

See all answers

What is your experience regarding pricing and costs for AutoSys Workload Automation?

It is reasonably priced compared to the market.

See all answers

What needs improvement with AutoSys Workload Automation?

There are areas of AutoSys Workload Automation that have room for improvement. They are implementing good enhancement...

See all answers

What is your experience regarding pricing and costs for K2?

Nintex Process Platform is expensive. Prices relate to both features and the professional services necessary due to o...

See all answers

What needs improvement with K2?

There are multiple areas that need improvement. Nintex Process Platform needs integration with other platforms such a...

See all answers

What is your primary use case for K2?

Our organization is a fertilizer company where we develop workflows regarding processes occurring at the plant. Most ...

See all answers

Comparisons

Control-M vs JAMS

Compared 12% of the time

Stonebranch vs JAMS

Compared 8% of the time

VisualCron vs JAMS

Compared 7% of the time

Redwood RunMyJobs vs JAMS

Compared 6% of the time

UiPath Orchestrator vs JAMS

Compared 3% of the time

More JAMS Competitors

Control-M vs AutoSys Workload Automation

Compared 21% of the time

Stonebranch vs AutoSys Workload Automation

Compared 9% of the time

Automic Automation vs AutoSys Workload Automation

Compared 5% of the time

IBM Workload Automation vs AutoSys Workload Automation

Compared 5% of the time

ActiveBatch by Redwood vs AutoSys Workload Automation

Compared 3% of the time

More AutoSys Workload Automation Competitors

IBM BPM vs Nintex Process Platform

Compared 4% of the time

Camunda vs Nintex Process Platform

Compared 4% of the time

WorkflowGen vs Nintex Process Platform

Compared 4% of the time

AWS Step Functions vs Nintex Process Platform

Compared 3% of the time

KiSSFLOW vs Nintex Process Platform

Compared 3% of the time

More Nintex Process Platform Competitors

Product Reports

Buyer's Guide

JAMS

July 2026

Download JAMS product report

Buyer's Guide

AutoSys Workload Automation

August 2026

Download AutoSys Workload Automation product report

Buyer's Guide

Nintex Process Platform

July 2026

Download Nintex Process Platform product report

Also Known As

No data available

CA Workload Automation, CA Workload Automation AE

K2 blackpearl, K2 Five, Nintex Workflow

Interactive Demo

JAMS Software

Demo not available

Broadcom

Demo not available

Nintex

Overview

JAMS is an automation orchestration and job scheduling solution that runs, monitors, and manages critical IT processes from a single console, from simple batch jobs to complex, cross-platform workflows. JAMS automates jobs across Windows, Linux, UNIX, IBM i, z/OS, and OpenVMS, with native integrations for the databases, BI tools, and ERP systems already running your business, including SQL Server and SAP. Jobs run on any schedule or trigger off other events, and dependency management keeps multi-step workflows in the right order.

Every job is centrally monitored, with notifications on success or failure and an audit trail of every execution. Built-in conversion tools migrate existing jobs from Windows Task Scheduler, SQL Agent, or Cron without rebuilding them, and JAMS replaces homegrown, single-platform scripts with one centrally managed system.

JAMS includes two AI capabilities at no additional cost. JAX is an AI agent built into the JAMS Web Client. Ask it a question in plain language, and it finds a job, troubleshoots a failure, or looks up how to do something, grounded in JAMS documentation, not general AI guesswork. It acts only when asked, and every change waits for your approval. JAMS MCP brings JAMS into the AI coding tools teams already use, including Cursor, Claude Code, GitHub Copilot, and Claude Desktop.

Both run inside the customer's network with the signed-in user's permissions and no elevated AI account, and every action, AI-driven or not, lands in the same audit trail as everything else in JAMS.

For teams managing thousands of jobs across SQL Server, ADF, Airflow, SAP, JDE, and Banner, this cuts tribal knowledge and middle-of-the-night troubleshooting. Knowledge that once lived in one person's head becomes something any team member can ask about directly.

The AI lives in the product, not in the support queue. Support is staffed by humans JAMS will never outsource, based in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia. New tickets go to long-tenured engineers, and every JAMS customer has the CEO's cell phone number.

JAMS' mission is to reduce the operational burden of critical automation, so teams spend more time on the work automation was meant to free them for.

JAMS Software

AutoSys Workload Automation delivers comprehensive scheduling capabilities and integration features, offering users scalability and efficiency in automation across platforms. Its enhanced user-friendliness and security make it a reliable choice for job scheduling and workload management.

AutoSys Workload Automation is well-regarded for its stability and intuitive graphical interface which facilitates efficient job scheduling across platforms. Users find its security features effective in ensuring controlled access, and appreciate its ability to handle high volumes of jobs while providing seamless orchestration and monitoring. However, the interface could benefit from modernization. Enhancements are suggested for reporting features and job flow clarity. Its integration with mobility and cloud platforms requires improvement as current support remains limited. Improving monitoring capabilities, managing cross-application dependencies, and simplifying upgrades are essential. Additionally, addressing the costly licensing model and enhancing high-level system process views are significant for maintaining competitiveness in automation.

What are AutoSys's key features?

Scheduling Capabilities: Provides robust and flexible scheduling options across platforms.
Integration Features: Allows seamless automation with diverse systems.
Security Measures: Ensures controlled and secure access to resources.
User-Friendly Interface: Offers an intuitive GUI for simplified use.
High Job Volume Support: Efficiently manages a large number of jobs with ease.

What benefits can users expect?

Reduced Manual Efforts: Automates processes minimizing the need for manual intervention.
Enhanced Visibility: Improves oversight and monitoring of tasks.
Effective Troubleshooting: Streamlines troubleshooting with well-organized workflows.
Scalability: Scales across diverse environments to meet enterprise demands.
Improved Efficiency: Increases operational efficiency with optimized automation.

AutoSys Workload Automation is extensively used in industries like banking, insurance, and retail for job scheduling, batch management, and server workload automation. It supports data processing for enterprise tasks, monitors tasks, and manages cross-platform dependencies, proving to be a reliable tool for complex job orchestration in these sectors.

Broadcom

Nintex Process Platform offers no/low-code development with system integrations and efficient workflow management, ideal for complex business processes. It's known for its scalable workflows, data management through SmartObjects, and a user-friendly visual designer.

Nintex Process Platform enables organizations to automate processes with ease, supporting electronic forms, digital transformation, and seamless department collaboration. Users on SharePoint and other integrated systems leverage its extensive workflow capabilities for approvals, onboarding, and information capture. While its current framework might benefit from performance enhancements and improved management console usability, it remains a strong choice for providing scalable solutions across industries.

What are the key features of Nintex Process Platform?

No/Low-Code Development: Enables users to develop applications without extensive coding knowledge, simplifying process creation.
System Integration: Offers seamless integration with systems like SharePoint and SAP, enhancing operational efficiency.
Workflow Capability: Facilitates the creation of sophisticated workflows suitable for complex processes.
SmartObjects: Centralizes data management, ensuring streamlined data access and usability.
Visual Designer: Simplifies the design and execution of business processes with an intuitive interface.

What benefits and ROI should users expect?

Increased Efficiency: Rapid deployment minimizes downtime and accelerates process automation.
Cost Savings: Reduces time spent on manual processes, improving operational costs.
Enhanced Collaboration: Streamlines communication and coordination across departments, leading to better teamwork.
Time Savings: Speeds up routine tasks like approvals and onboarding, freeing up resources for strategic initiatives.

Companies in sectors like government, HR, and financial services implement Nintex Process Platform for its ability to streamline and connect internal processes. It supports approval workflows, notifications, and data capturing, proving its versatility for diverse business needs. However, challenges with document conversion, performance, and cloud feature parity suggest room for enhancements, particularly in industries handling complex workflows.

Nintex

Sample Customers

Teradata, Arconic, General Dynamics, Yum!, CVS Health, Comcast, Ghiradelli, & Boston’s Children’s Hospital

Gaumont, Mercantil do Brasil, CCEE, Hanwha Life

SEA Corp, Omnicom Group, Verizon, STIHL

Buyer's Guide

AutoSys Workload Automation vs. Nintex Process Platform

August 2026

Free Report: AutoSys Workload Automation vs. Nintex Process Platform

Find out what your peers are saying about AutoSys Workload Automation vs. Nintex Process Platform and other solutions. Updated: August 2026.

DOWNLOAD NOW

908,834 professionals have used our research since 2012.

See our AutoSys Workload Automation vs. Nintex Process Platform report.

See our list of best Workload Automation vendors.

We monitor all Workload Automation reviews to prevent fraudulent reviews and keep review quality high. We do not post reviews by company employees or direct competitors. We validate each review for authenticity via cross-reference with LinkedIn, and personal follow-up with the reviewer when necessary.